📘 Malay Derivation Cheatsheet

Malay uses affixes (prefixes, suffixes, circumfixes) to form new words.
Some affixes are productive (can be used to freely form new words),
while others are non-productive/negative (fixed forms, limited in use).

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🔹 Productive Prefixes

meN-

Function: Forms active verbs (often transitive).

• Adds sense of "to do an action".
• Assimilates depending on first letter of root. Can be me-, mem-, men-, men-, meng-, menge-, meny-.

Example:

• tulis (write) → menulis (to write)
• ajar (teach) → mengajar (to teach)

Rule of Thumb

Use it when someone does or makes something to an object (transitive). Example: membuat kuih (make a cake).

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ber-

Function: Forms intransitive verbs (often stative or habitual).

• Adds sense of "to have / to use / to do".

Example:

• tulis → bertulis (written / bearing writing)
• baju (shirt) → berbaju (to wear clothes)

Rule of Thumb

Use it when someone has, is, or does something by themselves (intransitive or reflexive). Example: berjalan (walk), bekerja (work).

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ter-

Function: Forms stative verbs or accidental actions.

• Adds sense of "happened by itself / accidentally / the most".
• Adds the perfective aspect of the verb ("place" → "has been placed")

Example:

• tulis → tertulis (written down, inscribed, accidentally written)
• lihat (look) → terlihat (visible / accidentally saw)
• tujah (thrust, jab) → tertujah (accidentally jabbed)
• letak (place) → terletak (have been placed)

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peN-

Function: Forms agent nouns (the doer of an action).

• Like English -er.
• Assimilates depending on first letter of root. Can be pe-, pen-, peng-, peny-, pem-, per, pel-.

Example:

• tulis → penulis (writer)
• ajar (teach) → pengajar (teacher)

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🧬 Assimilation Rules for meN- & peN-

Both meN- (active verbs) and peN- (agent nouns) follow the exact same morphophonemic rules. The prefix changes its form depending on the first letter of the root word.

💡 The KPTS Rule: As a general rule, root words starting with K, P, T, and S will drop their first letter when attached to meN- or peN-.

Prefix Form (meN- / peN-)	Use if First Letter of Root Word is a...	Rule / Notes	Examples (meN- & peN-)
me- / pe-	l, m, n, ng, ny, r, w, y	Keep the first letter.	lawat (visit) → melawat / pelawat masak (cook) → memasak / pemasak
mem- / pem-	b, p, f, v	Drop p. Keep b, f, v. (Note: f is dropped in some older loanwords like fikir → memikirkan, but kept in newer ones like fokus → memfokuskan).	pukul (hit) → memukul / pemukul baca (read) → membaca / pembaca
men- / pen-	c, d, j, t, z	Drop t. Keep c, d, j, z.	tulis (write) → menulis / penulis curi (steal) → mencuri / pencuri
meng- / peng-	Vowels (a, e, i, o, u) g, h, k, kh, gh	Drop k. Keep vowels, g, h, kh, gh.	karang (compose) → mengarang / pengarang ajar (teach) → mengajar / pengajar
meny- / peny-	s	Drop s.	sapu (sweep) → menyapu / penyapu siasat (investigate) → menyiasat / penyiasat
menge- / penge-	1-Syllable Words	Keep the whole word (add an e).	cat (paint) → mengecat / pengecat bom (bomb) → mengebom / pengebom

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🔹 Productive Circumfixes

peN- -an

Function: Forms abstract nouns of actions, processes, or results.

Example:

• tulis → penulisan (writing, composition)
• bangun (get up) → pembangunan (development)

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ke- -an

Function: Forms abstract/stative nouns (states, qualities, or conditions).

• Often = -ness or state of being.

Example:

• tulis → ketulisan (state of being truthful / literalness)
• besar (big) → kebesaran (greatness)
• sakit (sick) → kesakitan (pain, illness)

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meN- -kan

Function: Causative or applicative verb formation.

• Derived from combining meN- and -kan.
• Expresses causation (“to make [something/someone] do or become something”) or application (“to do [something] for/on someone”).
• Considered derivational because it changes the base meaning significantly.

Examples:

• tulis → menuliskan (to write [something] for someone / to inscribe)
• panas (hot) → memanaskan (to heat [something], to make hot)
• ingat (remember) → mengingatkan (to remind)

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per- -an

Function: Forms nouns of actions/events.

Example:

• tulis → pertulisan (script, writing system, inscription)
• main (play) → permainan (game, play)
• jumpa (meet) → perjumpaan (meeting)

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🔹 Productive Suffixes

-kan

Function: Forms causative / transitive verbs (to make, to cause).

Example:

• tulis → tuliskan (write [something] down / write for someone)
• besar (big) → besarkan (enlarge, raise)
• ingat (remember) → ingatkan (remind)

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-kah

Function: Question particle suffix.

• Turns statements into yes/no or wh- questions.
• Can attach to verbs, adjectives, pronouns, or question words.
• Unlike other suffixes, -kah is grammatical, not derivational — it affects sentence mood rather than forming new words.

Example:

• tulis → tuliskah? (is [it] written?)
• apa (what) → apakah (what? / is it?)
• betul (correct) → betulkah (is it true?)
• mungkin (maybe) → mungkinkah (is it possible?)

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-lah

Function: Emphatic or polite particle.

• Used to soften imperatives, emphasize statements, or make speech more friendly.
• Like -kah, it is grammatical, not derivational — it doesn’t create new words but changes the tone or mood of the sentence.
• Very common in spoken and written Malay.

Examples:

• tulis → tulislah! (please write! / go ahead and write!)
• ini (here) → inilah (this is it / here it is)
• mari (come on) → marilah (let’s go!)
• cuba (try) → cubalah (try it!)

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-i

Function: Forms locative or repetitive verbs (to do something to/on).

Example:

• tulis → tulisi (to write on something repeatedly)
• isi (content) → isini (to fill something)
• cuci (wash) → cucii (to wash repeatedly)

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-an

Function: Forms nouns (things or results of actions).

Example:

• tulis → tulisan (writing, text, handwriting)
• makan (eat) → makanan (food)
• baca (read) → bacaan (reading material)

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-nya

Function: Multi-purpose suffix.

1. Definite marker (the).
   • tulisan → tulisannya (the writing)
2. Third person possessive (his/her/its).
   • tulisan → tulisannya (his writing)
3. Nominalizer (-ness, the fact that).
   • tertulis → tertulisnya (the fact of being written)
4. Adverbial/emphatic.
   • cepat → cepatnya (so fast!)

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-ku (and related -mu)

Function: First-person singular pronoun suffix (enclitic derived from aku).

• Acts grammatically to indicate possession or object reception.

1. Possessive marker (my).
   • tulisan → tulisanku (my writing)
   • buku (book) → bukuku (my book)
2. Object pronoun (me).
   • kenali (recognize) → mengenaliku (recognizes me)
   • bantu (help) → bantuku (help me)

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🔹 Non-Productive / Negative Affixes

These affixes are less “productive” — they don’t freely generate new words, but serve grammatical or lexicalized functions.

di-

Function: Forms passive verbs (third-person passive).

• Action is received rather than done.

Example:

• tulis → ditulis (is written [by him/her/them/it])
• makan (eat) → dimakan (is eaten)
• tangkap (catch) → ditangkap (is caught)

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ku- (and related kau-)

Function: First-person singular pronoun prefix (proclitic derived from aku).

• Marks an action done by the speaker ("I" or "by me").
• Often functions as a passive/ergative marker for the first person, behaving similarly to di- structurally.

Example:

• tulis → kutulis (written by me / I write)
• tahu (know) → kutahu (I know)
• lihat (see) → kulihat (seen by me / I see)

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se-

Function: Forms words with meaning "one, whole, same, together".

• Often lexicalized.

Example:

• tulis → setulis (as written / one writing)
• orang (person) → seorang (one person)
• kampung (village) → sekampung (whole village)
• rupa (appearance) → serupa (similar)

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ke-

Function: Forms nouns or adjectives showing state, rank, or order.

• Often used in set expressions (e.g. kekasih, kedai, kerusi) where it’s no longer felt as a prefix.
• Sometimes combines with -an (ke- -an) to form abstract nouns (e.g. kebaikan, keindahan).
• Considered non-productive, as it rarely forms new words in modern Malay.

Examples:

• keempat → the fourth
• kedua → the second
• kekasih → lover (literally “beloved one”)
• kerusi → chair (no longer transparently derived)

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juru-

Function: Forms profession nouns.

• Limited to a fixed set of words.

Example:

• (tulis doesn’t take this, but related: jurutulis = clerk/scribe*)
• cakap (speak) → jurucakap (spokesperson)
• tera (smart) → jurutera (engineer)

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maha-

Function: Intensifier, "great, supreme".

• Not freely attached, often in elevated/loanwords.

Example:

• (not applicable for tulis)
• besar (big) → mahabesar (very great)
• raja (king) → maharaja (emperor)

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tuna-

Function: Indicates lack/deprivation.

• Limited set.

Example:

• (not applicable for tulis)
• rungu (hear) → tunarungu (deaf)
• netra (eye) → tunanetra (blind)

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eka-/dwi-/tri-/panca- (Sanskrit origin)

Function: Malay and Sanskrit-derived prefixes used to express number, unity, or comparison.

Prefix	Origin	Meaning	Example	Meaning
se-	Native Malay	one / a / same	seorang, sekali, setulis	one person, once, as written
eka-	Sanskrit	one / single	ekabahasa	monolingual
dwi-	Sanskrit	two / dual	dwibahasa	bilingual
tri-	Sanskrit	three	trisakti	threefold / triple power
panca-	Sanskrit	five	Pancasila	five principles

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✨ Quick Reference

Affix	Function / Meaning	Example (from tulis)
meN-	active verb (to do)	menulis (to write)
ber-	intransitive verb	bertulis (bearing writing)
ter-	stative / accidental	tertulis (inscribed)
peN-	doer / agent	penulis (writer)
peN- -an	abstract noun (process)	penulisan (writing)
ke- -an	state / quality	ketulisan (literalness)
meN- -kan	causative or applicative verbs	menuliskan (to write (for someone))
per- -an	action/event noun	pertulisan (script)
-kan	causative verb	tuliskan (write it down)
-kah	question/focus particle	tuliskah (did [someone] write?)
-lah	emphatic or polite particle	tulislah! (please write!)
-i	locative/repetitive verb	tulisi (write on)
-an	noun (thing/result)	tulisan (writing/text)
-nya	definite/possessive/nominalizer	tulisannya (the/his writing)
-ku	1st person object / possessive	tulisanku (my writing)
di-	passive verb	ditulis (is written)
ku-	1st person marker (I / by me)	kutulis (written by me)
se-	one/whole/same	setulis (as written)
juru-	profession	jurutulis (scribe)
maha-	supreme/intensifier	mahabesar (very great)
tuna-	lack / deprivation	tunarungu (deaf)
eka-/dwi-/tri-/panca-	number forms	dwitulisan (bilingual writing)

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🌳 Malay Derivation Flowchart (tulis)

flowchart TD

A["tulis (root)"] --> B["meN- → menulis (to write)"]
A --> C["ber- → bertulis (bearing writing)"]
A --> D["ter- → tertulis (inscribed)"]
A --> E["peN- → penulis (writer)"]

E --> E1["peN- -an → penulisan (writing, composition)"]

A --> F["ke- -an → ketulisan (literalness)"]
A --> G["per- -an → pertulisan (script, writing system)"]

A --> H["-kan → tuliskan (write [something] down)"]
A --> I["-i → tulisi (write on repeatedly)"]
A --> J["-an → tulisan (writing, text)"]

J --> J1["-nya → tulisannya (the/his writing)"]
J --> J2["-ku → tulisanku (my writing)"]
D --> D1["-nya → tertulisnya (the fact of being written)"]

A --> K["di- → ditulis (is written)"]
A --> K2["ku- → kutulis (written by me / I write)"]
A --> L["se- → setulis (as written)"]
A --> M["juru- → jurutulis (scribe)"]

%% Non-productive others
X["besar (root)"] --> N["maha- → mahabesar (very great)"]
Y["rungu (hearing)"] --> O["tuna- → tunarungu (deaf)"]
Z["dwibahasa (two languages)"] --> P["dwitulisan (bilingual writing)"]

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🌱 Malay Lemma Decision Guide

A quick reference for identifying lemmas (root forms) in Bahasa Melayu.

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1. Check if it looks affixed

• Prefixes: meN-, ber-, ter-, peN-, ke-, di-, ku-, se-, per-
• Suffixes: -kan, -i, -an, -nya, -ku
• Circumfixes: ke-…-an, per-…-an

👉 If yes → strip the affix to find the root.

Word	Analysis	Lemma
menimpa	meN- + timpa	timpa
berjalan	ber- + jalan	jalan
kesyukuran	ke- … -an + syukur	syukur
perbuatan	per- … -an + buat	buat
kutahu	ku- + tahu	tahu
mengenaliku	meN- + kenal + -i + -ku	kenal

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2. Check if it’s reduplicated

👉 Lemma is the single form.

Word	Type	Lemma
buku-buku	full reduplication	buku
lari-lari	full reduplication	lari
sayur-mayur	partial reduplication	sayur

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3. Check if it’s a compound

👉 Lemma is usually the whole compound.

Word	Meaning	Lemma
kereta api	train	kereta api
alat tulis	stationery	alat tulis
rumah sakit	hospital (MS: hospital)	rumah sakit

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4. If none applies → it’s already a lemma

Some words look like they might have affixes historically, but are synchronically root words.

Word	Notes	Lemma
demikian	historically demi + -kian, but frozen	demikian
kalau	conjunction, no root to strip	kalau
supaya	subordinating conjunction	supaya
sungguh	“truly, really”	sungguh

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⚡ Quick Mnemonic

• Strip what is clearly added → lemma is root.
• If nothing looks added → lemma is the word itself.

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🔎 Malay Lemma Flowchart

graph TD
    A[Start with the word] --> B[Has a common affix? <br/>meN-, ber-, ter-, ke-...-an, ku-, -ku, etc.]
    B -->|Yes| C[Strip affix → Root <br/>Lemma = root form]
    B -->|No| D[Is it reduplicated?]
    D -->|Yes| E[Lemma = single form]
    D -->|No| F[Is it a compound?]
    F -->|Yes| G[Lemma = compound]
    F -->|No| H[Lemma = the word itself <br/>e.g. demikian, kalau]

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Compounds

Reduplication in Malay often expresses:

• plurality or variety (buku-buku ("book")= books),
• continuity or repetition (jalan-jalan ("street") = stroll around),
• emphasis or nuance (angan-angan ("daydream") = deep or wistful thoughts).